Production

Feature: the production of antibiotics Since the first pioneering efforts of Florey and Chain in 1939, the importance of medicine antibiotics has been a lot of research on the discovery and production. The production process involves screening of a wide range of microorganisms, testing and modification. Production is carried out using fermentation; A process that is important, under anaerobic conditions when there is no oxidative phosphorylation to maintain the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by glycolysis. [Edit] Side effects Possible side effects are varied, depending on the antibiotic used, and the microbial targeted. Negative effects can range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions including photodermatitis. [Edit] One of the most common side effects were diarrhea, sometimes caused by the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium, resulting from antibiotic upset the normal intestinal flora, [4] This proliferation of pathogenic bacteria can be alleviated by the ingestion of probiotics during a course of antibiotics. [Edit]. An antibiotic-induced perturbation of the population of bacteria normally present components of the normal vaginal flora may also occur and can lead to a proliferation of yeast species of the genus Candida in the vulvo-vaginal area. [5] Other side effects may result from interaction with other drugs, such as the high risk of tendon damage to the administration of a quinolone antibiotic with a corticosteroid. This is an affirmation that some antibiotics may interfere with the effectiveness of birth control pills. Although there are a few known cases of complication, the majority of antibiotics not to interfere with contraception, despite widespread misinformation to the contrary. [6] [Edit] Antibiotic abuse The forms of misuse of antibiotics including failure to take the full prescribed course of the antibiotic or lack of adequate rest to enable recovery authorization of the infecting organism. These practices can lead to the development of bacterial populations of antibiotic resistance. Inapproprié antibiotic treatment is another common form of misuse of antibiotics. A common example is the use of antibacterial antibiotics used to treat viral infections such as colds. [Edit] Animals It is estimated that over 50% of antibiotics used in the United States are given to food animals (eg, chickens, pigs and cattle), in the absence of disease. [7] antibiotics used in animal food production has been combined with the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria including salmonella. , Campylobacter spp. , Escherichia coli and Enterococcus spp. Proof of some American and European studies suggest that these resistant bacteria cause infections in people who do not respond to antibiotics commonly prescribed. In response to these practices and that the problems, a number of organizations (eg The l'American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) called for restrictions on use of antibiotics in food animal production and the end of all non-therapeutic uses. [Edit] However, delays in the legislative and regulatory measures aimed at reducing the use of antibiotics are frequent, and may include resistance to these changes by industries to use or sell antibiotics, as well as time spent on seeking to establish a causal relationship between the use of antibiotics and Emergence bacterial diseases untreatable. Today, there are two federal laws (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at eliminating non-therapeutic antibiotics in the US food animal production. The bills are approved by the public health and medical organizations, including the American Nurses Association (ANA), the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and the American Public Health Association (APHA). [Edit] [Edit] Humans A study of respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who should in their view, but they correctly identified only about 1 in 4 of these patients." [8] multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce Inapproprié prescribing antibiotics. [9] Delay antibiotics for 48 hours in accordance with the spontaneous resolution of respiratory tract infections may reduce the use of antibiotics; However, this strategy can reduce patient satisfaction. [10] Excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in the passenger may also be classified as misuse. [Edit] Antibiotic resistance Feature: Antibiotic resistance SEM depicting methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria.Use or misuse of antibiotics can result in the development of antibiotic resistance by infecting organisms, similar to the development of resistance to pesticides in insects. The evolutionary theory of genetic selection that requires as close as possible to 100% of the infecting organisms to be killed to avoid the selection of resistance; If a small subset of the population survives treatment and allowed to multiply the average length of this new sensibility population in the complex will be well below that of the original population, because they have descended from those few organizations that have survived the original treatment. This survival often inherited from resistance to the concession, which was uncommon in the population of origin, but it is now much more prevalent in the descendants and chosen entirely on those rare initially resistant organisms. Antibiotic resistance has become a serious problem in developed countries and underdeveloped countries. In 1984 half the people with active tuberculosis in the United States who had a strain resistant to at least one antibiotic. In some settings, such as hospitals and day-care places, the rate of antibiotic resistance is so high that the normal, low-cost antibiotics, which are virtually useless for the treatment of infections commonly seen. This leads to more frequent use of newer and more expensive compounds, which in turn inevitably leads to the increase of resistance to these drugs, and a race to discover new and different antibiotics follows, we just keep to lose ground in the fight against infection. The fear is that it will eventually fail to take into this race, and when people do not fear life-threatening bacterial infections will be just a memory of a golden age. Points of attack bacteria by antibioticsAnother example is the selection of the Staphylococcus aureus (golden staph '), which could be successfully treated with penicillin in the years 1940 and 1950. At present, almost all strains resistant to penicillin, and many are resistant to nafcillin, leaving only a narrow selection of drugs such as vancomycin for the treatment. The situation is aggravated by the fact that genes coding for resistance to antibiotics can be transferred via plasmids between bacteria, making it possible for bacteria never exposed to acquire an antibiotic resistance of those who have. The problem of antibiotic resistance is aggravated when antibiotics are used to treat disorders in which they have no effective as a cold or other viral complaints, and when they are widely used as prophylaxis rather than the treatment (as in, for example, animal feed), because it exposes more bacteria to select for resistance. [Edit] Modification of resistance Agents One solution to combat the resistance of current research is the development of pharmaceutical compounds that return multiple antibiotic resistance. These so-called resistance to the changing target and the agents can inhibit making mechanisms MDR bacteria to antibiotics likely they were previously resistant. These compounds target include, among others, Inhibition of efflux (Phe - Arg-β - naphthylamide) [11] Beta Lactamase inhibition Augmentin ® [12] [Edit] Beyond antibiotics The comparative ease of identifying compounds that security cure bacterial infections is more difficult to duplicate in the treatment of fungal and viral infections. Antibiotic research has led to significant advances in the knowledge of biochemistry, the establishment of major differences between the cellular and molecular physiology of the bacterial cell and mammalian cells. This explains the observation that many compounds which are toxic to bacteria are non-toxic to human cells. However, the basis biochemistries cells fungal and mammalian cells are much more similar. This limits the development and use of therapeutic compounds a fungus that attacks cells, without harming mammalian cells. Similar problems exist in antibiotic treatment of viral diseases. Human viral metabolic biochemistry is very closely similar to human biochemistry, and the potential targets for antiviral compounds are limited to very few elements which make up a virus from mammals. Bacteriophages for research on the use of antibiotics is currently underway. Several types of bacteriophage seems to exist that are specific for each taxonomic group of bacteria or other species. [Edit] research on bacteriophages for medical use is just beginning, but has led to the growth of the microscopic imaging. [13] Although bacteriophages provide a possible solution the problem of antibiotic resistance, there is no clinical evidence yet that they can be deployed as therapeutic agents to defeat the disease. Phage therapy has been used in the past on humans in the United States and Europe in the years 1920 and 1930, but these treatments had mixed results. With the discovery of penicillin in the years 1940, Europe and the United States has changed therapeutic strategies with antibiotics. However, in the former Soviet Union phage therapies continue to be explored. In the Republic of Georgia, the Eliava Institute of Bacteriophage, Microbiology and Virology continues to research the use of phage therapy. Various corporations and foundations in North America and Europe are currently researching phage therapy. [Edit] However, phages are alive and reproduction; Concerns about genetic engineering in distributed free virus currently limits certain aspects of phage therapy. Bactériocines are also increasingly alternative to the conventional small molecule antibiotics. Different kinds of bacteriocins have different potential as therapeutic agents. Small molecules bacteriocins (microcins, for example, and lantibiotics) can be similar to the conventional antibiotics; Colicin-as bacteriocins are more likely to be narrow spectrum, and to require new molecular diagnosis prior to the therapy, but also not to raise the specter of resistance to even degree. Probiotics are another alternative that goes beyond traditional antibiotics using a living culture that can arise as a symbiont, competitors, inhibiting or simply interfering with the colonization of pathogens. It can produce antibiotics or bacteriocins, mainly supply of drugs in vivo and in situ, potentially avoiding the side effects of systemic administration.
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Antibiotic

An antibiotic is a chemotherapeutic agent that inhibits or suppresses the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, or protozoa. The term refers to any official of the biological activity against living organisms; However, "antibiotic" is now used to describe substances with anti-bacterial, anti-fungal or anti-parasitic activity. The first antibiotic compounds used in modern medicine were produced and isolated living organisms, such as penicillin class produced by fungi of the genus Penicillium, or streptomycin bacteria of the genus Streptomyces. With advances in organic chemistry many antibiotics are obtained by chemical synthesis, such as sulfates. Many antibiotics are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight less than 2000 Da. Unlike previous treatments for infections, which often consisted in the administration of chemical compounds such as arsenic and strychnine, high toxicity also against mammals, antibiotics microbes had little or no side effects and the target strength of high activity. Most antibacterial antibiotics do not work against viruses, fungi and other microbes. Anti-bactérien antibiotics can be classified according to their specific target: "narrow spectrum" antibiotics target certain types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, while broad spectrum antibiotics involve a broad spectrum of bacteria. The effectiveness of different antibiotics varies with the location of the infection, the ability of the antibiotic to reach the site of infection, and the ability of the microbe to excrete or inactivate the antibiotic. Some antibacterial antibiotics destroy bacteria (bactericidal activity), while others inhibit bacterial growth (bacteriostatic). Oral Antibiotics are simply ingested while intravenous antibiotics are used in the most serious cases, such as deep-seated systemic infections. Antibiotics may also sometimes be administered topically, as with eye drops or ointments. In recent years, three new classes of antibiotics have been put into clinical use. This follows 40 years of hiatus in the discovery of new classes of antibiotic compounds. These new antibiotics are three categories: cyclic lipopeptides (daptomycin), glycylcyclines (tigecycline), and oxazolidinones (linezolid). Tigecycline is a broad-spectrum antibiotic, while the other two are used for Gram-positive infections. These developments show promise as a way to combat the growing bacterial resistance to antibiotics. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 classes of antibiotics 3 Production 4 Side Effects 5 Antibiotic abuse 5.1 Animals 5.2 Humans 6 Antibiotic resistance 6.1 resistance to change agents 7 Beyond Antibiotics 8 References 9 See also 10 links 10.1 Resources [Edit] See also: Chronology of antibiotics PenicillinAlthough powerful antibiotic compounds for the treatment of human diseases caused by bacteria (such as tuberculosis, bubonic plague or leprosy) were not isolated and identified until the twentieth century, the first known use antibiotics was ancient China over 2,500 years. [1] Many other ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and Greeks already used old molds and plants to treat infections, as a result of the production of antibiotics materials by these organizations. At that time, however, the compounds with antibiotic activity and in molds or plants were unknown. The antibiotic properties of Penicillium sp. Have been described for the first time in France by Ernest Duchesne in 1897. However, his work was dedicated by without too much of the scientific community until Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin (see below). Modern research on the antibiotic treatment began in Germany, with the development of narrow-spectrum antibiotic Salvarsan by Paul Ehrlich in 1909, for the first time, allowing efficient processing of the time widespread problem of syphilis. Drugs, which was also effective against other spirochaetal infections, is no longer used in modern medicine. Antibiotics were developed in Britain after the discovery of penicillin in 1928 by Alexander Fleming. More than a decade later, Ernst Chain and Howard Florey was interested in his work, and set up the purified form of penicillin. The three shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine. "Antibiotics" has been used to refer only to substances extracted from a fungus or other microorganisms, but has come to include the many synthetic and semi-synthetic drugs that have antibacterial effects. Antibiotics can help them succeed in curing many diseases [Edit] classes of antibiotics At the highest level, antibiotics can be classified as either bactericidal or bacteriostatic. Bactericidals kill bacteria directly where bacteriostatics prevent them from dividing. However, these classifications are based on the behavior of laboratory; In practice, these two are capable of putting an end to a bacterial infection. [2] Antibiotics [3] generic name, brand names use the possible side effects Aminoglycosides Amikacin Amikin infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella including Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Effective against aerobic bacteria (not oblige / anaerobic optional). The hearing loss Vertigo Damage to kidneys Gentamicin Garamycin Kanamycine Kantrex Neomycin Netilmicin Netromycin Streptomycin Tobramycin Nebcin Paromomycin Humatin Ansamycins Geldanamycin experimental, as antitumor antibiotics Herbimycin Carbacephem Loracarbef Lorabid Carbapénèmes Ertapenem Invanz Bactericidal for both Gram-positive and Gram-negative by the organization inhibition of the synthesis of cell walls and thus useful for empirical broad-spectrum antibacterial coverage. (Note MRSA resistance to this class.) Gastrointestinal disorders and diarrhea Nausea Seizures Headache Rash and allergic reactions Doripenem Finibax Imipenem / cilastatin Primaxin Meropenem Merrem Cephalosporins (first generation) Cefadroxil Duricef gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea Nausea (in cases of concomitant alcohol) Allergic reactions Cefazolin Ancef Cefalotin or Cefalothin Keflin Cephalexin Keflex Cephalosporins (second generation) Cefaclor Ceclor gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea Nausea (in cases of concomitant alcohol) Allergic reactions Cefamandole Mandole Cefoxitin Mefoxin Cefprozil Cefzil Céfuroxime Ceftin Cephalosporins (third generation) Céfixime Suprax gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea Nausea (in cases of concomitant alcohol) Allergic reactions Cefdinir Omnicef Cefditoren Spectracef Cefoperazone Cefobid Cefotaxime Claforan Cefpodoxime Ceftazidime Fortaz Ceftibuten Ceftizoxime Ceftriaxone Rocephin Cefdinir Cephalosporins (fourth generation) Cefepime Maxipime gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea Nausea (in cases of concomitant alcohol) Allergic reactions Glucopeptides Teicoplanin Vancomycin Vancocin Macrolides Azithromycin Zithromax, Sumamed, Zitrocin Streptococcal infection, syphilis, respiratory infections, mycoplasmal infections, Lyme disease nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and (especially at higher doses) Jaundice Clarithromycin Biaxin Dirithromycin Erythromycin Roxithromycin Troléandomycine Télithromycine Ketek pneumonia blurred vision, liver toxicity. The approval of this drug in the United States has aroused controversy, and a doctor visited the prison monitoring noun form; Follow-up adjectival form attempts to determine its safety because she falsified the results of his part of the testing precisely because it seemed to cause liver problems, including liver failure, in a greater extent than would be expected of a common antibiotic usage. [Edit] Spectinomycin antimetabolite, anticancer Monobactams Aztreonam Penicillins Amoxicillin Novamox Wide range of infections; Penicillin used for streptococcal infections, syphilis and Lyme disease gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea Allergic to severe anaphylactic Brain and kidney damage (rare) Ampicilline Azlocillin Carbenicillin Cloxacillin Dicloxacillin Flucloxacillin Mezlocillin Nafcillin Penicillin Pipéracilline Ticarcillin Polypeptides Bacitracin eyes, ears or bladder infections; Usually applied directly to the eye or inhaled in the lungs; Rarely given by injection Kidney and nerve damage (when administered by injection) Colistine Polymyxine B Quinolones Ciprofloxacin Ciproxin, Ciplox urinary bacterial infections, prostatitis, community bacterial pneumonia, diarrhea, mycoplasmal infections, gonorrhea nausea (rare), tendinitis (rare) Enoxacin Gatifloxacine Tequin Levofloxacin Levaquin Lomefloxacin Moxifloxacin Avelox Norfloxacin Ofloxacin Ocuflox Trovafloxacin Trovan Sulfamides Mafenide urinary tract infections (except sulfacetamide and mafenide); Mafenide is used topically for burns nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and Allergy (rash) Crystals in the urine The renal Decreased white blood cells Sensitivity to sunlight Prontosil (archaic) Sulfacetamide Sulfamethizole Sulfanilimide (archaic) Sulfasalazine Sulfisoxazole Trimethoprim Trimethoprim - Sulfamethoxazole (Co-trimoxazole) (TMP-SMX) Bactrim Tetracyclines Demeclocycline Syphilis, chlamydia, Lyme disease, mycoplasmal infections, gastrointestinal infections acne rickettsia upset Sensitivity to sunlight Stained teeth (especially in children) Potential toxicity to mother and fetus during pregnancy Doxycycline Vibramycin Minocycline Minocin Oxytétracycline Terracin Tetracycline Sumycin Other Arsphenamine Salvarsan Spirochaetal infections (obsolete) Chloramphenicol Chloromycetin Clindamycin Cleocin acne infection prophylaxis before surgery Lincoamycin acne infection prophylaxis before surgery Ethambutol Antituberculosis Phosphomycine Fusidic acid Fucidin The furazolidone Isoniazid Antituberculosis Linezolid Zyvox Metronidazole Flagyl Giardia Mupirocin Bactroban Nitrofurantoin Macrodantin, Macrobid Platensimycin Pyrazinamide Antituberculosis Quinupristin / Dalfopristin Syncercid Rifampin or Rifampicin Linked to the β subunit of "RNA polymerase" inhibit the transcription of the majority of "gram-positive" and "mycobacteria" Reddish-orange sweat, tears and urine Tinidazole Generic Name brand names use the possible side effects